Its super helpful to have a quick go to reference for the 8 grammatical parts of speech. Grammar Goals for Speech Therapy (Preschoolers): label actions or pictured actions during play-based activities use grammatical markers (i.e. While I was working with my 4th and 5th graders, I realized I needed a better system for teaching grammar and sentence structure. These are items that provide quick ways to motivate students or help me provide speech therapy, Read More 19 TOP Speech Therapy Materials (SLP Must Haves)Continue, Are you looking for ideas for speech therapy for toddlers? Click "unsubscribe" in any email to opt-out. I additionally believe that exposure to a variety of sentence structures and sentence types (interrogative, negative sentences, interrogative sentences) during speech therapy sessions is very important. Example conjunctions goals might include: The ability to define and describe is so important! Do you need a reminder on the different verb tenses? Please try again. I call it a whisper t and a long t. Normal resting posture is important. I think there is a huge importance, as well, in teaching our students how to pronounce grammatical endings (especially for past tense and plurals). My students would identify the category for their famous historical person (a baseball player? Basically, this has allowed my students to: I discussed how to treat r in this YouTube video, and also this blog post. To encourage the student to increase utterance length and overall communication skills, they need access to more than just single words. Theres so much to cover- so, where to start? Any of these can be made into long term or short term articulation goals. )Usar oraciones compuestas usando (y, pero, o, etc. 2023 The Pedi Speechie Website + Branding Design by Christi Fultz, Grammar Goals for Speech Therapy (IEP Objectives), 5 Speech Therapy Articulation Activities for Older Students, Quick and Easy Semantic Relationships Speech Therapy Worksheets, How to Do Speech Therapy with 4th and 5th Graders (SLP Guide), The Advanced Grammar and Sentence Structure Program for Speech Therapy: Why Grammar and Syntax is SO Important, Teaching Idioms in Speech Therapy (Ideas and Activities). Goodwin and Ahn (2010) found morphological awareness instruction to be particularly effective for children with speech, language, and/or literacy deficits. Goal: AAE Rule(s): Example: Mark 3rd person singular -s : 3rd person singular -s may be omitted or it may be used with the 1st person. Many students in special education may require some sort of aided communication. )Aumentar conocimiento de vocabulario receptivo apropiado para su edad al identificar [#] adjetivos, sealando a fotos (tamao/forma/color/textura, etc. /k,g/) en palabras al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of backing by producing all age-appropriate bilabial and alveolar sounds (/p, b, m, t, d, n/) at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de posteriorizacin al producir todos los sonidos bilabiales y alveolares (/p, b, m, t, d, n/) al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of stopping by producing all age-appropriate fricatives and/or affricates (/f, v, , , s, z, , , t, d/) at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de oclusivizacin al producir todos los sonidos fricativos y africados (/p, b, m, t, d, n/) al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of assimilation by producing all age-appropriate phonemes in a) one-syllable b) two-syllable c) three-syllable words at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de asimilacin al producir palabras de 2-3 slabas con sonidos apropiados para su edad al nivel de [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of cluster reduction by producing X blends at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de reduccin de grupos consonnticos al producir grupos consonnticos con el sonido X al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of consonant sequence reduction by producing /s/ consonant sequences (e.g., eSTe, buSCa, eSPonja) in words at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de reduccin de secuencias consonnticas al producir secuencias consonnticas (ej., eSTe, buSCa, eSPonja) en palabras al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of cluster reduction by producing /l/ clusters (e.g., PLato, haBLa) in words at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de reduccin de grupos consonnticos al producir grupos consonnticos con /l/ (e.g., PLato, haBLa) en palabras al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of consonant sequence reduction by producing /l/ sequences (e.g., faLDa, aLTo) in words at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de reduccin de secuencias consonnticas al producir secuencias con /l/ (e.g., faLDa, aLTo) en palabras al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of cluster reduction by producing /r/ clusters (e.g., Primo, maDRe, oTRo) in words at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de reduccin de grupos consonnticos al producir grupos consonnticos con /r/ (e.g., PRimo, maDRe, oTRo) en palabras al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of consonant sequence reduction by producing /r/ sequences (e.g., caRTa, baRCo, RBol) in words at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de reduccin de secuencias consonnticas al producir secuencias con /r/ (e.g., caRTa, baRCo, RBol) en palabras al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of gliding by producing appropriate consonants in words at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de semivocalizacin al producir consonantes apropiados en palabras al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of vocalization by producing vocalic /r/ and/or /l/ at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de vocalizacin al producir la /r/ voclica y/o la /l/ al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of flap/trill deviation by producing the flap and/or trilled /r/ at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de la desviacin de la ere y la erre al producir la ere y/o erre al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of final consonant devoicing by producing all age-appropriate voiced phonemes in the final position of words at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de la desvocalizacin de los consonantes finales al producir todos los fonemas vocalizados en la posicin final de palabras al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin]. Make sure to learn about the straw technique for a lateral lisp. In addition, morphological awareness skills are related to, and often predict, future literacy skills. Speech pathologists often work on verb tense with school-age children. - The patient will demonstrate adequate attention to therapy tasks with no more than Receive a complimentary continuing education course and e-book on Communication Disorder Resources for Parents and Professionals just for signing up. And if you dont at least mention it to your students, no one else will. For structured language activities that target past tense verbs and morphology, you can check out this grammar program. These receptive language goals are appropriate for preschool through adulthood. plural s ending: toys), correctly produce final consonant clusters to indicate a past tense grammatical ending (i.e. How to Write Voice Goals (Pediatric) - Goal Bank Included I realized my language kids simply needed to start with the basics and work their way up. Check out the Past Tense Verbs Program to see how it will be beneficial for your speech therapy students. Speech-Language Pathology | American River College Speech Sound Disorders. We either write a second goal or this is where goal objectives come in. Will reduce the process of weak syllable deletion by producing all syllables of: a) two- and b) three-syllable words at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de omisin de slabas tonas al producir todas las slabas en palabras con a) dos y b) tres slabas al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of initial consonant deletion by producing all age-appropriate consonants in the initial position of words at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de omisin de consonantes iniciales al producir todos los consonantes apropiados para su edad en la posicin inicial de palabras al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of medial consonant deletion by producing all age-appropriate consonants in the medial position of words at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de omisin de consonantes mediales al producir todos los consonantes apropiados para su edad en la posicin medial de palabras al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of final consonant deletion by producing all age-appropriate consonants in the final position of words at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de omisin de consonantes finales al producir todos los consonantes apropiados para su edad en la posicin final de palabras al nivel de la [palabra/frase/oracin], Will reduce the process of fronting by producing velar sounds (i.e., /k, g/) in words at the [word/phrase/sentence] levelDisminuir el proceso de frontalizacin al producir los sonidos velares (ej. I'd like to receive the free email course. You can practice creating new words by adding a suffix to a base word to work on morphology. Pragmatic language goals are goals that target a childs ability to maneuver the social world. Have you Worked on Morphological Awareness Lately? | Smart Speech Therapy 6. This is really an informal iep goal bank of ideas. Feb 8, 2017 - Speech language therapy materials for school age: grammar, tenses, plurals, sentence structure. Early grammatical morphemes can include present progressive -ing (i.e. This is the third installment in Syntax Goals for Speech Therapy, where I'll be giving you some sentence structure goals for speech therapy. Once air has been added, you can hear the /s/ in isolation. In one year, using curriculum relevant tasks student will use context clues to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words or phrases 8/10 trials with data charted monthly using direct observation. hkk02]|H]:%Zb%*Kts7fEtD g $8 Therapy is meant to be individualized, and what works for one student may not work for another. 6. You can read about my favorite games for 4th and 5th grade and dont forget to learn about my favorite straw technique for tackling a lateral lisp. The Entire Year of Grammar and Sentence Structure provides you with a structured activity and lesson to use each week with your students. I needed to make sure my speech goals and objectives really impacted my clients day-to-day life. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32692961/, https://pubs.asha.org/doi/full/10.1044/2020_LSHSS-19-00057, https://mydigitalpublication.com/publication/?m=13959&i=398575&p=16&ver=html5, https://www.scholastic.com/content/dam/teachers/lesson-plans/migrated-files-in-body/prefixes_suffixes.pdf, https://www.wvced.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Morphology-Matters-4-1-19.pdf?fbclid=IwAR1boEXbtVmx1VtqRmp-b6QljVQUlU8GZN_6Fp8Oxlc4z6HM4SRarIvBwa0. ), Will follow #-step directions with age-appropriate quality concepts (color, size, shape)Seguir instrucciones de # pasos que incluyen conceptosde calidad apropiados para su edad (color, tamao, forma geomtrica), Will follow #-step directions with age-appropriate pronounsSeguir instrucciones de # pasos que incluyen pronombres apropiados para su edad, Will follow #-step directions with age-appropriate temporal conceptsSeguir instrucciones de # pasos que incluyen conceptostemporales apropiados para su edad, Will answer age-appropriate yes/no questions related to personal experiences/classroom discussions/storiesContestar preguntas de si/no apropiados para su edad en relacin a experiencias personales/discusiones en el saln/cuentos, Will answer age-appropriate wh- questions related to a storyContestar preguntas apropiadas para su edad acerca de un cuento, Will answer age-appropriate wh- questions related to an activityContestar preguntas apropiadas para su edad acerca de una actividad, Will answer age-appropriate wh- questions related to discussionsContestar preguntas apropiadas para su edad acerca de discusiones, Will answer a variety of age-appropriate wh- question typesContestar una variedad de preguntas apropiadas para su edad (quin, qu, cundo, dnde, por qu y/o cmo), Will answer who, what, and where questionsContestar preguntas dequin, qu, y dnde, Will answer when, why, and how questionsContestar preguntas de cundo, por qu y cmo, Will answer who questionsContestar preguntas de quin, Will answer what questionsContestar preguntas de qu, Will answer when questionsContestar preguntas de cundo, Will answer where questionsContestar preguntas de dnde, Will answer why questionsContestar preguntas de por qu, Will answer how questionsContestar preguntas de cmo, Will sequence a)3 b)4 c)5 images to show the correct order of events after hearing a storySecuenciar a)3 b)4 c)5 imgenes para ensear el order correcto de eventos despus de or un cuento, Will sequence a)3 b)4 c)5 images to show the correct order of events after an activitySecuenciar a)3 b)4 c)5 imgenes para ensear el order correcto de eventos despus de una actividad, Will sort images/objects into categoriesClasificar imagenes/objetos en categoras. In the first part, I shared a "base goal" for syntax that defines the . So basically- I make sure my student understands the correct lingual resting posture as a foundational skill. Bilinguistics 2019 All Rights Reserved. $17.00. EXHAUSTING. Client will engage in speech at the conversational level using balanced resonance. We can use intervention strategies with young children in language therapy such as direct teaching, modeling, expansion, verbal prompts to use the grammatical target, and recasts. At the sound level, phonology refers to the rules of the sound system and the rules of sound combination. Here are some example speech therapy goals for grammar and syntax: Heres how these goals might look during a typical speech therapy session. Finally, this program is also unique because it addresses spelling. If youre working with upper elementary students (such as 4th and 5th graders), theres a solid chance youll be focusing on either vocalic r or lisps. (client) will maintain grammatical accuracy in sentences 5+ words in length in 80% of opportunities across 3 data collections. fear, anger, embarrassment, pride) during discussionExplorar sentimientos relacionados con la tartamudez (por ejemplo miedo, ira, vergenza, orgullo) durante discursos, Will recognize disfluencies in him/herself and othersReconocer los tartamudeos en su habla y el habla de otras personas, Will identify different types of speech (bumpy/smooth, fast/slow)Identificar varios tipos del habla (duro/suave, rapido/despacio), Will determine if the therapist is using fast or slow speechDeterminar si la terapeuta habla rpido o despacio, Will determine if he/she is using fast or slow speechDeterminar si l/ella habla rpido o despacio, Will determine if the therapist is using smooth or bumpy speechDeterminar si la terapeuta habla suave o duro, Will determine if he/she is using smooth or bumpy speechDeterminar si l/ella mismo/misma habla suave o duro, Will participate in desensitization activitiesParticipar en actividades de insensibilizacin hacia la tartamudez, Will identify instances of stuttering when listening to a recording of him/herselfIdentificar casos de tartamudeo al escuchar una grabacin de si mismo/a, Will decrease avoidance behaviors by entering 3 specific situations that were previously avoidedDisminuir los comportamientos de evitacin al ingresar a 3 situaciones especficas que se evitaron previamente, Will demonstrate desensitization by pseudo-stuttering in the therapy setting/in the classroomDemostrar desensibilizacin al pseudo-tartamudear en el entorno de la terapia/en el aula, Will name and describe stuttering modification techniques (cancellation, pull-out, preparatory set, relaxed stuttering, voluntary stuttering)Nombrar y describir las estrategias de modificar la tartamudez (cancelacin, salir suavemente de un momento de desfluidez, conjunto preparatorio, tartamudeo relajado, tartamudeo voluntario), Will use stuttering modification techniques during therapy activitiesUsar estrategias de modificacin del tartamudez durante actividades de la terapia, Will maintain eye contact during stuttering moment during structured therapy activities/in an assigned situation outside of therapy/during daily activitiesMantendr el contacto visual durante el tartamudeo durante actividades estructuradas de terapia/ en situaciones fuera del saln de terapia/ durante actividades cotidianas, Will name and describe the technique of voluntary stutteringNombrar y describir la estrategia del tartamudeo voluntario, Will use voluntary stuttering during structured therapy activities/in an assigned situation outside of therapy/during daily activitiesTartamudear voluntariamente durante actividades estructuradas de terapia/ en situaciones fuera del saln de terapia/ durante actividades cotidianas, Will name and describe cancellationNombrar y describir la estrategia de la cancelacin, Will use cancellation to name and describe/in structured activities/in narration or conversation/outside of therapyUsar cancelacion para nombrar y describir/durante actividades estructuradas de terapia/durante la narracin o conversacin/fuera del saln de terapia, Will name and describe the strategy of pull-outNombrar y describir la estrategia de salir suavemente de un momento de desfluidez, Will use the strategy of pull-out to name and describe/in structured activities/in narration or conversation/outside of therapyUsar la estrategia de salir suavamente de un momento de desfluidez para nombrar y describir/durante actividades estructuradas de terapia/durante la narracin o conversacin/fuera del saln de terapia, Will name and describe preparatory setNombrar y describir la estrategia de prepatory set(conjunto preparatorio), Will use preparatory set to name and describe/in structured activities/in narration or conversation/outside of therapyUsar la estrategia de prepatory set(conjunto preparatorio) para nombrar y describir/durante actividades estructuradas de terapia/durante la narracin o conversacin/fuera del saln de terapia, Will name and describe relaxed stutteringNombrar y describir la estrategia del tartamudeo relajado, Will use relaxed stuttering to name and describe/in structured activities/in narration or conversation/outside of therapyUsar la estrategia del tartamudeo relajado para nombrar y describir/durante actividades estructuradas de terapia/durante la narracin o conversacin/fuera del saln de terapia, Will name and describe fluency facilitating techniques (i.e. an author? Speech Therapy Goal Bank Syntax, Morphology & Grammar Goals - Shine Speech Activities 0 Syntax, Morphology & Grammar Goal Bank (client) will produce plural nouns (cats, apples, etc) in words/phrases/sentences with 80% accuracy for 3 data collections. They can be used in individual therapy sessions or small group. Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) - Apraxia Kids eating), plural -s (i.e. This is my professional opinion only, but. Hope all of this morphology information is helpful! Thats why I like to take a structured approach and really break things down. Speech-language pathologists looking for a quick list of initial ch words, medial ch, and final ch target words to practice during speech therapy, make sure to bookmark this post. As a reminder: you know your student best and will want to individualize all goals and make them measurable. Subjects: Reading, Spelling, Vocabulary Grades: 3rd - 6th Types: Look here: If your goals meet the above criteria, you should be in great shape. Provides strategies and "ready-to-use" activities for teaching vocabulary across grade levels. As Ive mentioned throughout this post, I like to make sure Im also addressing morphology. AAC (or alternative and augmented communication) goals support people who communicate using methods other than using their speaking mechanism to communicate. discriminate appropriate grammar and verb tenses at the sentence level. %%EOF ,"8H/w!%$=ggC5w8IQl-'*(Tv|@|&'$qx&-kVn{fRI&,[;`%>"sJEut\ If youre looking for an organized, effective approach to use in speech, then youre in the right place! in words/phrases/sentences (his, hers, theirs, etc). Receptive language goals target what a child understands. Writing speech goals doesnt have to be complex, and speech goals do not have to be long, but they do have to be accurate in four specific ways. I highly doubt this will be attainable if your student has struggled with R for years. How to Write Expressive Language Goals [with goal bank] an auditory passage. However, we want to increase language skills and help our students share information. I typically first work on s in isolation- however, I never call it s to my students. HVM6WQ.%i `=lr$JF+ Again, if you cut and paste from above you should be in good shape. Also, proper resting posture of the tongue is important for other reasons, as well. The goals I write, however, are geared towards speech. Watch this video of Chris as he uses his communication skills to participate in purchasing art supplies and going out to lunch: To conclude, we want to highlight possibly the most important thing to know about. I get this. They may use gestures, signs, words, or symbols on a core board or device to communicate their wants and needs. Although I tend to use the approach above (and cycle through a variety of parts of speech and sentence parts), there are definitely times where you want to hone in on specific area. Topics include an introduction to the field of communication disorders . Special Education Instruction / Speech and Language #1 Explicitly teaching affixes is research supported for improving reading comprehension and word learning. `IaDD=FI}Ef$as6X,AV-Q We needed solid visual cues. Increase knowledge of base words and derivational suffixes. In this blog post, youll learn about 10 speech therapy lesson plans that will easily allow you to target your students goals. I also find having a typodont on hand especially helpful, so I can show where lingual-palatal contact occurs. After that, we practice pronouncing the verbs. Our therapists are state licensed and/or credentialed. Speech pathologists are language experts- but we arent English teachers! endstream endobj 87 0 obj <> endobj 88 0 obj <> endobj 89 0 obj <>stream What are some good grammar goals for speech therapy with school age children? Morphology and Syntax - Falls Church Speech Therapy PDF The Importance of Knowing Linguistic Content in Speech Therapy - ed They will practice sorting words by suffix for increased understanding. During speech and language tasks, have children take data on their goal. You dont need to re-learn everything grammar. I often have to remind them- its much more important to listen carefully and focus. Think about it, how successful would you be if you didnt have goals set for what you wanted to accomplish? Phonology study of the speech sound (i.e., phoneme) system of a language, including the rules for combining and using phonemes. =,f$lK2>i}sBH"0h^ q\?^RX\$nw(w e}l/ "^!VXE2Qm^o_j#xmDaKVK8 [O7.8ua \+t_\u;^\o> These resources are wonderful for the school setting. Goal 2: Describe (e.g., color, size) using a variety of 2-3word combinations in 50% of opportunities, given no cues. Voice goals target volume, resonance, pitch, breath support, and vocal hygiene to support those whose voices interfere with their ability to communicate effectively. Now Seeking Speechy Musings Brand Ambassadors. In fact, please do! PDF Addressing Speech/Language Goals Through Literacy: VciSfREjh6twoWL4=wA$:txMvSGG Most tell me their tongue is pushing against their teeth. Any of these can be made into long term or short term articulation goals. In my clinical experience, if a student is demonstrating a tongue thrust or improper tongue resting posture and is also demonstrating a lisp, I find it useful to teach correct resting posture in addition to working on speech. 9\69he5}X@-48%n3* 6c 3 9p3I&4#w9>@ ,` %h-\ *@EW@nZ-]cCdQfV+9*{ V&slrlNs# ra. One task I like to use for articulation carryover is teaching my student how to self-evaluate speech performance. Although I studied), generate an, when the base word ends with a voiceless sound, -ed or -d sounds like /t/ (example: laughed), when the base word ends with a voiced sound, -ed or -d sounds like /d/ (example: waved), when a base word ends with a /t/ or a /d/, -ed or -d sounds like id (example: painted). Here is another fun articulation carryover activity to try. *Also commonly included is a consistency statement. Each of these 3 main tenses can be broken down into further components, including simple, continuous, perfect, and perfect continuous. Objectives must be specific and measurable, among other characteristics. easy onset, relaxed breathing, slowed speech, light contact, continuous phonation)Nombrar y describir las estrategias que facilitan la fluidez(empezar suave, respiracin relajada, habla lenta, contacto ligero, fonacin continua), Will use slow rate when telling a story or during other structured therapy activityUtilizar un ritmo lento al contar un cuento o durante otra actividad de terapia estructurada, Will name and describe the technique of easy onsetNombrar y describir la estrategia de empezar suave, Will use easy onset at the word level/ at the phrase level/ when telling a story or during other structured therapy activityUtilizar la estrategia de empezar suave en palabras/en frases/cuando cuenta un cuento o durante otra actividad de terapia estructurada, Will use easy onset during a 5-minute conversational task in the therapy settingUtilizar la estrategia de empezar suave durante una conversacin de 5 minutos en el entorno de la terapia, Will name and describe the technique of relaxed breathingNombrar y describir la estrategia de la respiracin relajada, Will use relaxed breathing at the word level/ at the phrase level/ when telling a story or during other structured therapy activityUtilizar la estrategia de la respiracin relajada en palabras/en frases/cuando cuenta un cuento o durante otra actividad de terapia estructurada, Will use relaxed breathing during a 5-minute conversational task in the therapy settingUtilizar la estrategia de la respiracin relajada durante una conversacin de 5 minutos en el entorno de la terapia, Will name and describe the technique of slowed speechNombrar y describir la estrategia del habla lenta, Will use slowed speech at the word level/ at the phrase level/ when telling a story or during other structured therapy activityUtilizar la estrategia del habla lenta en palabras/en frases/cuando cuenta un cuento o durante otra actividad de terapia estructurada, Will use slowed speech during a 5-minute conversational task in the therapy settingUtilizar la estrategia del hable lenta durante una conversacin de 5 minutos en el entorno de la terapia, Will name and describe the technique of light contactNombrar y describir la estrategia del contacto ligero, Will use light contact at the word level/ at the phrase level/ when telling a story or during other structured therapy activityUtilizar la estrategia del contacto ligero en palabras/en frases/cuando cuenta un cuento o durante otra actividad de terapia estructurada, Will use light contact during a 5-minute conversational task in the therapy settingUtilizar la estrategia del contacto ligero durante una conversacin de 5 minutos en el entorno de la terapia, Will name and describe the technique of continuous phonationNombrar y describir la estrategia de la fonacin continua, Will use continuous phonation at the word level/ at the phrase level/ when telling a story or during other structured therapy activityUtilizar la estrategia de la fonacin continua en palabras/en frases/cuando cuenta un cuento o durante otra actividad de terapia estructurada, Will use continuous phonation during a 5-minute conversational task in the therapy settingUtilizar la estrategia de la fonacin continua durante una conversacin de 5 minutos en el entorno de la terapia, Will use 2 fluency shaping techniques (i.e.

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